Darboe Jula,
With little time I will be very brief and apologies for not addressing 
specific issues in your posting. With that said, you will agree with me 
that:
Nation building even among people of the same racial, ethnic, religious 
background is never without problems and as such may require a lot of 
time for things to sort themselves up. The situation in the Sahel is 
particularly complicating in that it is where Arab meet Black Africa - 
with all the diversity of needs and skills and very resource requiring 
the development of century-old resource sharing mechanism. Historians 
will say what is called "Banditry" was the way of life some early desert 
tribes, thus the use of "Babarous"/Babarians by the Greeks. I am not 
trying to excuse these folks but to highlight the age-old practice. And 
trust me you do not need, the former mad-dog-of-Sahara, 
re-incarnated-Pan-Africanist Col M. Qaddafi's support for this lifestyle 
to continue. Its not different from cattle rustling/ "addu kalpeh" or 
give me your wallet.  Despite the ugliness of the problem you cannot 
defeat it by military means.

MQT(?) you would by notice that I am not a student of the Colonel or his 
Green Book but I would venture say the same Black Libyan labor that 
built the canals and gardens for the camel herders are currently at work 
cropping rice, millet and groundnut, this time for a 
Retired-Colonel-turned-Professor.  I would say it is alright to let 
Colonel Qaddafi dream of a greater Sahel empire. It amounts to only a 
dream as long as we have visionary, insightful leaders in Mali, Senegal, 
Niger and neighboring countries who love their country and people as 
much as he does. The Touregs will one day decide to be on Mali's side if 
they are convinced that its in their best interest and any military 
intended to speed that up could easily backfire given their 
long-standing racial, cultural and religious ties with friends in the 
north.

As for why Mali? It is not only Mali. This problem of inequitable 
resource distribution is all over in Africa particularly where it is 
most scarce. In a desert environment there are no alternatives. You 
either have resources or you don't. And with easy access to arms and 
perfect cover (desolate desert) the condition is perfect for aggrieved 
populations to turn to violence.


Bytheway I think the Bambara are very proud people to vote for a Prez 
Jaiteh.

Malanding



Haruna Darbo wrote:
> Thank you Dr. Jaiteh for the rejoinder. I am in agreement with most of 
> what you share here. I want to drive the point home though that in 
> North Mali (Kidal and Gao notably), there is both this structural 
> internecine conflict among permutations of Tuareg tribes on the one 
> hand, and the Peul/Songhai Vs. Tuareg on the other, *AND gratuitous 
> piracy and banditry by individual Tuaregs fronting as members of the 
> Ag Bahanga faction.*
> ** 
> *These bandits use 4x4s received from Libya mainly (a convoy of 15 of 
> them attacked Nampala). They descend on unsuspecting border residents 
> (Tuaregs, peuls, Bambaras, Mandingos, Songhai, Sonrhai, Tamashek, etc. 
> whoever they encounter). They dispossess them of their monies, jewels, 
> foodstuff, and vehicles, wounding and even killing resistors. They 
> take the loot back to their families.*
>  
> *This activity is different from the "aggrieved" Tuareg faction of Ag 
> Bahanga engaging the Malian military in in surprise attacks. That 
> still goes on. You could divine that these bandits may belong to the 
> AG Bahanga faction and they probably receive weapons and training in 
> that faction aided by Libya and perhaps Algeria, but the nature of 
> their crimes makes them bandits and pirates. In other words, they 
> could very well belong in the Bahanga faction and fight alongside as 
> "Freedom fighters" and also be bandits and pirates during down time.*
>  
> Now then, as to creative ways the government of Mali can develop to 
> deal with the "justified grievances" of "encumbered nomadic pastoral 
> life", I want to share with you that Mali has invented many a benign 
> solution.
>  
> 1. The Mali government has mediated between the Peul/Songhai 
> conglomerate and the Tuaregs on numerous occasions. And Niger has 
> assisted in this area. A review of what the two nations have been 
> doing toward this end is advised.
>  
> 2. As regards "lack of development" grievances, various governments of 
> Mali have shared with the Tuaregs that they cannot do anything about 
> border demarcations without the acquiescence of Libya, Algeria, and 
> Mauritania. I am sure you will appreciate that from a practical point 
> of view. What some hardline Tuaregs have said (with the advice of 
> Libya) was that they wish to have a nation of their own. Now what will 
> you then do with the other tribes who live in the ensuing Tuareg 
> Nation? Mali cannot countenance that. And if the Tuaregs do not have 
> development while they are part of Mali, how will they have the 
> development they yearn by seceding from Mali? Libya of course. 
> Remember Kitabul Akhdar! (The Green Book)? Our dear leader has turned 
> desert into hadeeqahs (flower gardens). What Kitabul Akhdar doesn't 
> tell you is that it is the black Libyan labour, purchased Hungarian, 
> Yugoslav, Turkish, and Italian supervision that built canals and 
> aquifer boreholes to create oases havens for bedoin camel herders. I 
> wish my friend Sandor (Shandor) Shelekovsky were beside me now to 
> share some ideas with us.
>  
> Libya's ambitions of empire are to be fulfilled by annexing piecemeal, 
> parts or wholes of Chad, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Guinea. Guinea is 
> the prize. Why? Just look at the hydrologic map of the area. 
> Canals rely on an ever-receding aquifer where there is no surface 
> water. Like crude oil therefore, you have to keep replacing sumps with 
> ones that have greater head capacity. Libya also has a couple of 
> desalination plants along the mediterranean sea in Tripolitania, but 
> that process is labour and capital intensive because it 
> includes desalination in the water treatment process. As Libya's 
> capital reserves are heavily reliant on an ever-dwindling supply of 
> crude and associated by-products. I am just sharing with you some 
> of Libya's calculus. Of course what greater calculus can a 
> dictatorship have than a warped sense of empirical grandeur. Gaddafi 
> lives in a time warp when empires are built by internecine conflict 
> which enslaves the defeated tribe. Yugoslavia grew out of Serbia, 
> Bosnia, Croatia, and Montenegro that way.
>  
> It just so happens that the droughts and lack of infrastructure in the 
> border areas are concerns for all the border countries, not just Mali. 
> However, factional attacks are directed only at Mali. Wonder why? Mali 
> is the only democratic nation in that area. It therefore presents a 
> softer target. There have been numerous attacks before Mali finally 
> decided to secure the area with troops.
>  
> Mali has also initiated numerous peace treaties with all the Tuareg 
> factions and the most recent one was the Algiers Accord of 2006. 
> Gaddafi meddled in that until Algeria said they've had it up to here 
> with idiots and they threaten to abandon it. Gaddafi likes pictures of 
> his caravans trekking through the Sahara criss-crossing the African 
> nations with reckless abandon for reconaissance. He has dreams. Some 
> people know about the dreams. Some don't. Mali has been taking 
> Gaddafi's self-insertion benignly and for what its worth. That is why 
> when he asked Mali to afford him 50,000.0 hectares so he can duplicate 
> what he did in the Libyan deserts for the Tuareg tribes of North Mali, 
> ATT yielded because ATT sees the best in people. I hope they consulted 
> good legal advice before ceding territory to this lunatic. I'd like to 
> see that arrangement. I will also monitor the Libyan representatives 
> who feign "engineer" on that project. I wouldn't be surprised if they 
> are part of the Shurta Sha'Abiyya, sowing further discord and 
> disharmony among the tribes of North Mali.
>  
> At any rate Dr. Jaiteh, another creative way Mali has sought to 
> appease the Tuareg tribesmen is to incorporate those who have agree to 
> lay down their arms, into the regular Malian army. I am sure the IRIN 
> report educated us about the shortcomings of that arrangement.
>  
> One problem you may not be considering Dr. Jaiteh is that during all 
> the negotiations between Mali's government and the Tuaregs, the 
> majority of the Tuareg factions actually are willing to allow peace so 
> that development workers can feel safe to build schools, hospitals, 
> roads, irrigation schemes, etc., even if it requires the government to 
> tap water from one of the Niger's tributaries that runs in the north 
> around Kidal. The name of the tributary escapes me now. And remember 
> Mali relies heavily on the goodwill of development partners who do not 
> desire to endanger the lives of their citizen-contractors in North 
> Mali. That is why it is crucial that peace prevails so that the 
> "Development" that the recalcitrant Tuaregs say they need can be 
> brought and placed in their laps. You will be surprised to find out 
> that it is not really the development they want. It is secession they 
> want. And their road-map to that is to cleanse North Mali of the other 
> "nuisance" tribes so that the secession could be advanced. If you were 
> the President of Mali Dr. Jaiteh, what creative solution would you 
> embark upon? I am confident the Mali government will appreciate all 
> the help they can get in that area. And Mali chooses democracy. So 
> they will not drop a nuclear bomb on the Tuareg rebels or dispatch 
> them forcefully toward Libya. And that may be the achilles heel here. 
> Since Libya is interested in the north Mali tribes, why does Gaddafi 
> not offer them a place in the Hadeeqahs of south Libya? Oh I forgot, 
> it is the territory he wants. Because after all, the Tuaregs are 
> mostly black. You mentioned Sudan in your notes Dr. Jaiteh. Well I 
> want you to know that the Tuaregs are the Janjaweed and Gaddafi is Bashir.
>  
> I could go on and on Dr. Jaiteh, but I will end by reviewing one of 
> your anxieties. You had mentioned that nomadic tribes have been 
> severely affected by national border demarcations. Well I'll be darn 
> as they say in Appalachicola. I presume then that the nomadic tribes 
> of Chad, Sudan, Niger, Burkina Faso, Mali, Ivory Coast, Algeria, 
> Mauritania, Senegal, La Guinea, Bissau, Gambia, Togo, Ghana, Nigeria, 
> SierraLeone, Liberia, Cameroon, Gabon, The Cape Verde Islands, The 
> USA, Canada, Belgium, Bosnia, Georgia, South Ossetia, Abkharzia, 
> Nepal, Pakistan, Iran, Israel, Palestine, France, Spain, Columbia, 
> Venezuela, are all affected by this phenomenon of national borders. 
> And most of these countries don't have a clue what democracy is. In 
> other words Dr. Jaiteh, I appreciate your concern and I agree with 
> your premise that whereever you have a national border, you are 
> inevitably separating some members of tribes or whole tribes. I also 
> agree with you that the ancient practice of indiscriminate grazing has 
> been necessarily curtailed by national borders. The only anxiety I 
> have is that until two or more nations agree to UNITE, there will be 
> national border demarcations. AND don't think if there are no national 
> borders, that will be the end of internecine conflicts. I knew you 
> didn't think so I just wanted to remind myself. As my 
> Texarcana churchman once sneered: There is not a readier ingredient 
> for general despondency that a score of idle idiots (adapted).
>  
> I gotta go now but men, did I share with you I need more posting 
> privileges? I don't generally like to write long pieces and if I have 
> say 20 privileges I could have split this note into 5 short ones. But 
> remember, giving me 20 doesn't mean I may not need 30 in the future. 
> I'm just saying. What about post-trading? What is wrong with that. I'm 
> sure there are plenty of coleagues here who'd wish to accord others 
> their unused post quotas. Anyway I'll yield here until I hear from you 
> again. Haruna. 
>     
>
> > Date: Thu, 8 Jan 2009 11:07:14 -0500
> > From: [log in to unmask]
> > Subject: Re: Dr. Jaiteh, here's another perspective of the North 
> Mali problem from IRIN news.
> > To: [log in to unmask]
> >
> > Haruna
> > Meddling from neighboring Magreb countries require the government and
> > people of Mali to be a little more sophisticatedly when dealing with 
> the
> > desert nomads. Any attempt to use military force could end the same
> > place western Sudan is. The fact is conflict in the that part of Sahel
> > is climate/land resource base. Our ancestors adapted to the problems of
> > resource scarcity by allowing some to develop nomadic lifestyle while
> > others engage in sedentary living. Enforcement of international borders
> > has the unintended effect of restricting annual /seasonal migrations
> > thus limiting coping mechanisms. This is the source of conflicts in 
> this
> > resource poor situation. The situation becomes even worst when the
> > government on one side of the conflict (often with ethnic tendencies)
> > joins in the condemnation of the other as the trouble makers or 
> bandits.
> > In my view what is called banditry is the expression of discontent and
> > marginalization. It must be understood that until the imposition of
> > these modern countries (50yrs ago?), many tribes/nations were very
> > independent. The creation of countries have not partitioned some of
> > these nations, it also created out of them minorities who only 25yrs 
> ago
> > were majorities. At the same time previous marginalized people have
> > become the powerful and power brokers.
> >
> > From a purely resource management point of view, a central pillar of
> > mitigating the impacts of droughts in the region is the conversion of
> > what I call "wetland islands" (oasis and inland floodplains) in a
> > largely semi-desert landscape, into irrigated rice baskets. This 
> results
> > in an all year crop production system that severely limits the use of
> > the ecosystem for grazing and biodiversity conservation. Given that
> > different ethnic groups specialize on different agro-pastoral systems,
> > the struggle for these resources can easily express themselves as 
> ethnic
> > conflicts.
> >
> > Its getting complicated already. The solution, in my view is for the
> > government to find creative means to engage all parties/ethnicities to
> > this new order without coercion.
> >
> >
> >
> > Malanding Jaiteh
> >
> >
> >
> >
> > Haruna Darbo wrote:
> > > I'm glad this one is in English. The North Mali problem is two-fold
> > >
> > > 1. Internecine: age-old tribal conflicts between permutations of
> > > Tuareg tribes and Peul and Songhai tribes at the Mali-Niger border.
> > >
> > > 2. The affect of prolonged periods of drought which has decimated
> > > pasture for all nomadic tribes who then blame government for not
> > > bringing enough development to the north.
> > >
> > > Various governments of Mali over the years have tried to solve these
> > > seemingly intractable problems in various ways relying on very meagre
> > > means. However, since ATT's arrival, and his committment to steer 
> Mali
> > > in comprehensive democracy and free enterprise, Mali has received
> > > enormous goodwill.
> > >
> > > A. Goodwill from nature and Allah/God because the severe droughts of
> > > the 90's has not occured. Not that it wouldn't occur again but Mali's
> > > renewed focus on the national environment and irrigation projects in
> > > the north will temper the affects of cyclical droughts. It is
> > > understood that you can have pasture degradation both in scarce
> > > rainfall and in abundant (flooding) rainfall. Therefore events of
> > > nature can only be optimally managed and Mali seeks that balance 
> where
> > > a drought or flood might have nil or diminshed affect on lives and
> > > livelihood. Whether one likes democracy or not, national development
> > > can best occur in relative peace or better in total friggin peace.
> > >
> > > B. Goodwill from development partners like Norway, Sweden,
> > > Denmark, USA, Canada, China, EU, RUssia, Saudia, Libya, Cuba, France,
> > > Tunisia, Malaysia, Australia, UK, Japan, South Korea, South Africa,
> > > Venezuela, Brazil, The AgHa Khan Foundation, UNICEF, UNESCO, Yemen,
> > > The Emirates, UNDP, FAO, etcetera, etcetera. These development
> > > partners, recognizing Mali's sincere efforts at DEMOCRATIC LIFE, and
> > > the fact that Mali is LANDLOCKED, have increased their investment in
> > > Mali's GOOD future. This is why Mali is able, even amid global
> > > economic stringency, to develop the nation more comprehensively. No
> > > development can take place amid national insecurity and
> > > gratuitous banditry. Not even if you have limitless funds.
> > >
> > > The internecine conflicts and gratuitous banditries have also had 
> some
> > > meddling from Libya, Algeria, and Mauritania on the Touareg side, and
> > > Niger and Chad on the Peul and Songhai side.
> > >
> > > I hope this explains some of the dynamics. You don't have to take my
> > > word for it, you can travel there to see for yourself, or we can
> > > review notes from disparate sources. I just happened to be familiar
> > > with this menace from an early age and have been following it since.
> > > That's all. I do know that whether in socialism, naturalism,
> > > communism, democracy, kleptocracy, or any cracy one may divine,
> > > development best occurs in serenity and considered calm. Mali
> > > governments are not responsible for what nature deals Mali. They can
> > > only effort to ameliorate the affect and train on equal treatment
> > > under law. BTW, the peuls and Songhai are also inherently nomadic 
> just
> > > like the Tuaregs. I haven't even shared info on Nomadic Bambaras,
> > > Mandingos, Wollofs, Jolas, Serers, Mendes, Ibos, Yorubas, etcetera.
> > > The bottom-line is that when there is a drought in any area, ranching
> > > nomads must travel further for pasture. That means, you impose on the
> > > little pasture other ranching nomads have. You are not entitled to
> > > that pasture. You can only use it with the permission of the owners,
> > > who themselves need it for their herds.
> > >
> > > BTW Dr. Jaiteh, I came across a pioneer research by the University of
> > > Bamako and it involves Geospatial cartography and water-use for Mali.
> > > Perhaps you can assist them or find it a valuable read. Perhaps your
> > > university is already assisting the UofBM in this endeavour. The
> > > article is in french and I was looking for an au-pair article in
> > > English. I haven't been lucky yet but I'll keep looking.
> > > Haruna.
> > >
> > >
> > >
> > > MALI-NIGER: Insecurity persists despite militia leader's arrest
> > >
> > >
> > > Photo: Phuong Tran/IRIN <http://www.irinnews.org/photo>
> > > <http://www.irinnews.org/PhotoDetail.aspx?ImageId=200808298>
> > > The edge of the Sahara desert bordering Mali and Niger, 2007
> > >
> > > BAMAKO, 29 September 2008 (IRIN) - Analysts say despite the
> > > government's efforts to secure the north through its clampdown of a
> > > militia accused of masterminding recent Tuareg killings, lasting 
> peace
> > > is still elusive because of restive ex-fighters, extreme Sahelian
> > > poverty, and drug trafficking.
> > >
> > > Mali officials have reported arresting dozens of suspects in the 
> Ganda
> > > Izo militia, or "children of the earth," including its leader Amadou
> > > Diallo who had fled to neighbouring Niger after four ethnic Tuareg
> > > civilians were abducted and killed during a Muslim holiday fair in
> > > Gao, Mali on 1 September.
> > >
> > > *Fears persist
> > > *
> > > Rather than feeling appeased by the government crackdown, Tuareg 
> human
> > > rights lobbyist Raichatou Wallet Altanata says even good intentions
> > > may provoke a violent backlash, "I fear the government's hunt and 
> mass
> > > arrests of militia members may have the opposite effect on their
> > > [militia] movement."
> > >
> > > She fears the militia may strike back with revenge killings against
> > > the Tuareg community in the north.
> > >
> > > Altanata says Ganda Izo, a militia made up primarily of ethnic Peuhls
> > > and Songhais brings up bloody memories for her of the group's
> > > paramilitary predecessor in the 1990's, Ganda Koy, which was accused
> > > of having the government's backing in its mass executions of Tuareg
> > > civilians in 1993 and 1994.
> > >
> > > Both the governments of Mali and neighbouring Niger have been accused
> > > of violent crackdowns during Tuareg revolts that sent thousands of
> > > Tuaregs fleeing into Libya, Algeria and beyond, starting in 1996.
> > >
> > > *
> > >
> > > Photo: Phuong Tran/IRIN <http://www.irinnews.org/photo>
> > > <http://www.irinnews.org/PhotoDetail.aspx?ImageId=2008090210>
> > > Tuareg fighters in Niger and Mali have periodically taken up arms to
> > > demand more control of the desert
> > >
> > > Bloody past, bright future?
> > > *
> > > Various Tuareg rebel factions have periodically taken up arms over 
> the
> > > past nearly two decades in both Niger and Mali against their
> > > governments, demanding more services in the drought-prone north, and
> > > autonomy for the northeast region's Tuareg nomadic communities.
> > >
> > > Peace accords starting in the early 1990's between governments and
> > > Tuareg rebel groups led to years of relative calm until the 
> resurgence
> > > of violence in Mali in May 2006
> > > <http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=59096>, and Niger in
> > > February 2007.
> > >
> > > Niger's government has refused to negotiate with rebels this time
> > > around. Mali's government and Tuareg rebels, meanwhile, suspended
> > > Algeria-mediated peace talks 31 August 2008, though these are 
> expected
> > > to continue after the Muslim month of religious fasting ends in the
> > > coming days.
> > >
> > > But anthropologist Naffet Keita with the University of Bamako, who 
> has
> > > published on Tuareg revolts, says conditions that permitted
> > > state-sponsored ethnic-based violence in response to past Tuareg
> > > rebellions have changed. "The people who brutally murdered four
> > > Tuaregs on 1 September were mistaken to think they would be protected
> > > by the state as they have been in the past. It is not the same era,"
> > > said Keita.
> > >
> > > But despite Keita's assessment of a more just Malian military, he and
> > > other analysts say there are still stumbling blocks to lasting
> > > regional security.
> > >
> > > *Haphazard integration
> > > *
> > > Previous efforts to integrate former fighters into Mali's national
> > > army were flawed, says Faradji Ag Bouteya, an army officer in Mali's
> > > Territorial Administration, "Rebels who joined the army never really
> > > left behind their movements."
> > >
> > > He says after the 1996 peace accord, designed to end years of Tuareg
> > > revolt in northern Mali, about 12,000 former Tuareg rebels were
> > > integrated into the army, paramilitary and public posts, some of whom
> > > then deserted, says Bouteya.
> > >
> > > "They were not used to military discipline, wanted things the easy
> > > way, [but] they wanted to get the state's attention, so they took the
> > > short-cut of taking up arms again."
> > >
> > > Anthropologist Keita says the military was insufficiently trained or
> > > prepared to absorb the new waves of fighters, some of whom were given
> > > positions of leadership, "These are officers who never had people 
> over
> > > them. This [can be] dangerous for everybody. If there is another wave
> > > of integration, we risk falling into the same trap [of heightened
> > > tension between Tuareg ex-rebels and the military]."
> > >
> > > *Delayed development
> > > *
> > > Droughts starting in the 1970's wiped out pastoralists' livestock,
> > > shrunk cultivation land and pushed rural communities, including 
> nomads
> > > living on the edge of the Saharan desert, deeper into poverty.
> > >
> > >
> > > Photo: IRIN <http://www.irinnews.org/>
> > > <http://www.irinnews.org/PhotoDetail.aspx?ImageId=20058153>
> > > Child in Gao hospital, eastern Mali
> > >
> > > Mali consistently ranks close to the bottom of an annual UN 
> ranking of
> > > living conditions around the world, measured by life expectancy,
> > > education and income.
> > >
> > > But Mahomed Ag Mahmoud, the director of the state's Agency for the
> > > Development of the North, says the government is trying, and has 
> since
> > > 2006 invested US$3.6 million in infrastructure, water sources and
> > > microfinance in the north
> > > <http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=59796>. "In 
> addition, it
> > > has been forecasted that over the next 10 years, the government will
> > > invest an additional US$1.5 billion in the north."
> > >
> > > But Altanata, who works with the Association for the Promotion of
> > > Peace, Development and Human Rights, says this figure is dubious,
> > > "Development efforts undertaken and pledged by the state remain just
> > > that, hypothetical pledges. If you visit the north, it does not look
> > > like millions have been pumped in."
> > >
> > > *Drug trafficking
> > > *
> > > The UN Office on Drugs and Crime has recorded more drug seizures and
> > > trafficking through the Sahara desert in recent years. Investigators
> > > trace the drugs from various West African ports, through the desert,
> > > and onward to lucrative European cocaine and heroin markets.
> > >
> > > Tuareg rebels have denied having powerful positions in the 
> trafficking
> > > chain, but have admitted to IRIN, under the cover of anonymity, of
> > > being hired as lookouts or, occasionally, as drivers.
> > >
> > > One Tuareg rebel who has fought in both Mali and Niger rebellions 
> told
> > > IRIN, "People think we know more about the drug trade than we really
> > > do. We would love to be more involved. Our youths have no jobs. At
> > > least it would bring us some money. But the Arabs are protective of
> > > their trafficking and won't let us in too close. At most, they might
> > > hire us to pose as herders to look out for security forces- you know,
> > > the old men with no animals standing in the middle of the desert."
> > >
> > > The head of Mali's Commission of Peace and Reconciliation, Mahamadou
> > > Diagouraga, told IRIN even in the best of circumstances, drug
> > > trafficking threatens the north's security, "Drug trafficking and the
> > > spread of Algeria's Islamism into our country turns the north into a
> > > fertile breeding ground. Even if we had total control of this 
> space, I
> > > don't think, even then, the peace that we so long for would come any
> > > time soon."
> > >
> > > gd/pt/aj
> > > ¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤¤ To
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