In his paper, "The Irrelevance of Infant Observations for Psychoanalysis" (1996
J. Amer. Psa. Assn.), Wolff says, "The psychological theories that emerge from
such evidence differ so fundamentally from Freud's perspective on the human
condition that their links to psychoanalysis appear irretrievably broken.  The
etiology of the psychoneuroses has been shifted from inherent and irreconcilable
conflicts between personal desire and civilization, to empirical assumptions
about the long-term effects of real experience and of the quality of nonverbal
communications between infant and mother, amplified and exacerbated by later
similar disturbances of social interaction" (p. 387).

Wolff's statement on pathogenesis is puzzling because the conflict between
personal desire and civilization cannot explain individual differences in
psychopathology other than as a result of differences in real experience.  Wolff
seems unaware of Freud's concept of the complementary series which accounts for
pathogenesis in terms of the interaction between innate and environmental
factors.  Although the same environmental event will be experienced differently
in terms of the "psychic reality" of each individual, these differences in
psychic reality must themselves be ultimately explained by differents in the
interaction of innate and environmental factors.  The only differences other
than environmental are genetic.  Therefore, to the extent that differences in
psychopathology are not explained entirely by genetic factors, they must be
explained by differences in environmental factors.

Freud's 1926 theory of signal anxiety attempts to account for psychopathology in
terms of environmental factors.  Both realistic and neurotic anxiety are
explained by the same principles--namely, the expectation of danger.  In the
case of realistic danger, the expected danger is conscious.  In the case of
neurotic anxiety, the expected danger is unconscious.  Most expectations are
learned as a result of real experiences.  The relevance of Freud's theory to
pathogenesis can be illustrated by Brenner's (1974) case of a young boy whose
mother punishes him whenever he openly expresses anger at his little sister--at
first by locking him in a dark closet, and later by not speaking to him.
According to signal anxiety theory, when the little boy has an angry impulse
toward his little sister, the censorship (that part of the unconscious ego that
regulates defense) has learned to expect the danger of mother's anger and
punishment.  This expectation generates an anxiety signal that triggers defense
to prevent the angry impulse from becoming conscious.

Although psychoanalysis is now characterized by pluralism, it is not clear that
any of the major schools reject Freud's concept of the complementary series.
Other than genetic or environmental, what other kinds of factors could be
responsible for psychopathology?  Perhaps Freud's complementary series is a
useful point of departure for clearly defining the differences between rival
psychoanalytic schools.  They may emphasize different kinds of environmental
factors as crucial to the generation of different kinds of psychopathology or
differ in other important beliefs.

Eric Gillett, M.D.  [log in to unmask]